Jordan has an amazing range of diversity as a country. In a land with many nuances, its multi-facets are revealed amidst its contemporary buildings and the remains of a thriving old past. This remote landscape encompasses deserts, mountains, and waterfalls, housing archaeological treasures dating back to the Paleolithic era.

Historically, Jordan’s strategic location made it a part of ancient empires like Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian, while also being influenced by pharaonic Egypt, Persia, ancient Greece, and Rome. Since the mid-seventh century AD, various Arab and Islamic dynasties have shaped the country, resulting in a rich tapestry of cultural resources and architectural styles. Each style reflects Jordan’s unique identity, promising an enriching experience for travelers exploring its nuances in a 7-day itinerary.

The Nabataean History

The Nabataeans emerged in written history around 312 BCE, establishing themselves as a vital trading hub along the Silk Routes connecting Asia and Europe via the Red Sea. According to established evidence, Nabataeans lived in Northern Arabia, Transjordan (the biblical territories of Edom and Moab), and the Negev Desert of Israel.

There’s an interesting way of establishing the Nabatean aspect of history, and that’s via Coinages. For a kingdom that relies on trade for their income, coinage was an expression of the political status and alliances, its economy and its cultural affiliations. The Nabataean coins, initially bronze imitations of Alexander the Great’s golden coins, became lead-based in the early first century BC, featuring the Nabataean inscription ‘nabat’. By creating a brand-new class of silver coins with the king’s bust on the obverse and an eagle rendered in Ptolemaic style on the reverse, King Obodas II (60–59 BC) helped to forge the Nabataean identity. The king’s name and the year of his reign were both written in the Nabataean inscription. The traditional Nabataean cornucopia was shown on the bronze coins of his son Malicos I (59–30 BC) to emphasize abundance.

Malichos I was also the king who “had to confront a choice between Caesar and Pompey, between Caesar’s murderers and Anthony, between Anthony and Octavian, and through all this period between the claimants to the throne in Jerusalem,” according to historians. In 40 BC, he also had to choose between Herod the Great and the Parthians. Under his leadership, Nabataean society started to be influenced by Roman culture. King Obodas III, his successor, was the first monarch to issue coins with images of the queen. She was shown either by herself or with the king, but never identified by her name.

During King Aretas IV’s reign, marked by the construction of Petra and other significant sites, his realm flourished, evident in the extensive coin production. His coins featured images of his two queens, Khuldu (9 BC – AD 16) and Shaqilat (AD 18–39), alongside their names.

However, Nabataean economic decline began under King Rabel II, culminating in annexation by the Roman ‘Provincia Arabia’ in 106 CE, marking the end of Nabataean coinage.

Caravan trade from Arabia, Africa, and the East sustained Petra’s prosperity, positioning it as a crucial hub. The city developed grand buildings reflecting its opulence and reputation as a thriving commercial center, catering to commerce, ceremonies, governance, manufacturing, and water supply. During Roman rule in Syria, the Nabataeans maintained relative independence, likely due to their tax payments to Rome. However, Roman dominance eventually surpassed the wealth generated by trade and taxes, leading to Petra’s decline as a caravan hub. The transition to maritime trade further diminished its importance, exacerbated by the regional earthquake of 363 CE. Under Arab rule after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, Petra faded from public view until its rediscovery by Europeans in the nineteenth century.

Petra and its terrain

Petra, derived from the Greek word meaning “rock,” was the ancient capital of the Nabataeans, known as Raqmu to themselves. The site is a unique blend of geology and archaeology. Stepping into Petra will undoubtedly raise this question – Is it the collection of monuments with geological features in-between that creates its repute, or is it the fact that it’s a site of geological features that enabled the Nabataean carvers to add monuments and further its glory? The sandstone layers in Petra indicates the symbiotic relationship between geological features and human craftsmanship that has influenced its selection as a location, facilitating the grand scale, intricate architectural details, and remarkable preservation of its monuments.

Most of Petra’s monuments were carved from two geological formations: the “Disi Sandstone,” primarily found in the upper parts of the site and used in a smaller number of monuments, and the “Umm Ishrin Sandstone,” characterized by its multi-colored composition (yellow, grey, red, brown, and mauve-red). This sandstone formation, with a thickness of 300-350 meters, dates back to the Late Cambrian Era, approximately 500 million years ago. Known for its workability and stability, the Umm Ishrin formation was likely favored by the Nabateans for carving the majority of their monuments. Geologists refer to both formations collectively as the “Rum Sandstone Group,” dating to the Paleozoic period, around 540 to 260 million years ago.

The rocks in Petra were sculpted over 540 million years ago by the rhythmic deposition of sand from a braided river system, akin to the craftsmanship of a skilled sand-bottle artist. While a skilled artist typically works within the constraints of a two-dimensional canvas surface, the sandstone composition in Petra transcends this limitation, spanning three dimensions with a thickness of 300 meters and extending hundreds of kilometers deep.

The light brown-yellow hues result from a blend of clear quartz and dark yellow feldspar, while yellow tones stem from sulphur, and pink to dark reddish hues from iron oxide. Blues, dark purples, and greys emerge from manganese deposits. White sandstone lacks cement, and most sandstone appears rose-colored due to mineral precipitation carried by groundwater after sand formation.

It’s crucial to understand that the colors in Petra were created by mineral precipitation carried by groundwater after the sand formation. In contrast, cross-bedding, formed by the flow direction of river water during deposition, sometimes overlays these color formations.

Petra – The ancient seven wonder

Petra gained global recognition when it was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World by the New Open World Corporation. Rediscovered by the Swiss explorer Burckhardt in 1812, it earned the moniker “rose-red city half as old as time.” Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, Petra also holds significance in biblical texts, referred to as “Sela” in Hebrew, meaning rock and refers to Moses’ Exodus journey. In the Bible verse Isaiah 16:1, it states: “Send lambs as tribute to the ruler of the land, from Sela, across the desert, to the mount of the Daughter of Zion.” Wadi Musa, known as “Moses Valley,” is believed to be the final resting place of Moses’ brother, Aaron, and serves as the administrative hub of the Petra Department.

Before I even set foot in Petra, its historic allure and the enchanting pink rock structures had already captivated my imagination, thanks to a quote: “When dawn alights The Dagger’s Tip, Three Kings will reveal the doorway.” For those unfamiliar, it’s a nod to my fondness for the Transformer franchise. After all, as it happens in the movie, “Our races united by a history long forgotten, and a future we shall face together. I am Optimus Prime, and I send this message so that our pasts will always be remembered, for in those memories, we live on.” Unlike the grand adventures of Indiana Jones and Sam Witwicky into the ancient city, my footsteps into the abandoned city felt more like uncovering a surprise in the “Lost City,” brimming with secrets yet to be unveiled. Most Jordanians refer to themselves, irrespective of where they are stationed geographically, by anchoring themselves to Petra. After 2000 years, Petra still gives the place and the people their character and identity, expressing its strength and success as an ancient architectural testament. A fact that was more clear at 6.30 am in the morning as I blurrily rub my coffee-deprived eyes and wait for my brain to kick-start!

Strabo provides a comprehensive description of Petra, Jordan, attributing Athenodorus of Tarsus’ account.

The metropolis of the Nabataeans is Petra, as it is called; for it lies on a site which is otherwise smooth and level, but it is fortified all round by a rock, the outside parts of the site being precipitous and sheer, and the inside parts having springs in abundance, both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens.

Geographia XVI.4.21, Jones 1961

This description highlights two important aspects about Petra and its ancient inhabitants: the geological landscape and the ability of the Nabataean tribes to manage their territory. The Nabataeans developed a distinctive architectural style influenced by their geological terrain. Influenced by various cultures, including Egyptian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Eastern, the Nabataeans developed a unique architectural style seen in the bold, multi-story tombs found in ancient Nabataean cities. Dating these tombs has proven challenging due to the absence of artifacts like coins and pottery, but they are believed to have been constructed between the early second century C.E. and the second century B.C.E., which is considered to be the Nabataeans’ wealthiest period. Despite various styles, the tombs’ inscriptions in Nabataean, Greek, and Latin provide information on the buried individuals.

The trail to human ingenuity starts as you walk away from the visitor centre towards a marked trail starting next to a shop named Indiana Jones. I mean how appropriate can you beginnings be! About 400 m from the entrance there are three large monolithic block tombs on the right (northern) side of the road. Some call it dwellings of djinn, some refer to it as cisterns (as-Sahrij), which could be related not only to their form, but also to a probable use in Byzantine times. The local Bedouins have the notion that the Djinn is a ghost or spirit that may occupy various objects, such as lamps or in this instance geological formations. It is likely because of these myths that Djinn Blocks were not harmed by later generations that lived here.

Across from these blocks is the Obelisk Tomb, crafted by the Nabataeans in the first century CE, featuring four pyramids (“nafesh”) and a niche with a bas-relief statue representing the buried individuals. The tomb’s facade is 15.98 meters wide and 12.3 meters tall and combines Egyptian, Greek, Indian, and Nabataean styles, with the lower section known as the Bab al-Siq Triclinium, displaying Greco-Roman architectural elements. The interior of the Triclinium comprises of a traditional hall for Nabataean funnery rites. Inscription in Greek (left) and Nabataean (right) details the names of tomb occupants – a man named Abdmank and his children. The presence of Greek writing bears testimony to the influence of Hellenistic culture on cosmopolitan Petra.

In the event of heavy rainfall, water from a vast catchment area east of Petra flows into Wadi Musa, leading to flash floods in Bab as-Siq. A severe 1st-century BC flood damaged infrastructure, prompting the Nabataeans to construct a protective dam and tunnel system, diverting water through Wadi Muthlim and Wadi Mataha. This infrastructure, including a 12.80-meter-high dam, ensured the safety of Petra and facilitated further construction in the city.

The 1.2 km Siq gorge, from the Dam to the Treasury, is a geological fault line formed by tectonic plate movement. Its narrowest point measures only 3 meters wide and reaches depths of up to 70 meters.

Besides its stunning rocky terrain, the Siq showcases Nabataean religious and technical prowess with remnants like terracotta pipes and rock-cut canals, delivering water to the city. These were constructed alongside flood protection systems and paved roads in the late 1st century BC. Nabataean retention dams in five Siq side gorges have been restored, along with parts of the ancient pavement.

The Siq also houses betyls (Semitic: bait-el = house of God; Greek: baitylos), aniconic God emblems found in niches, symbolizing God’s presence and subject to cultic adoration in religious ceremonies.

The sandstone cliffs are popular for rock climbing and feature ancient ruins, including a partially eroded statue depicting a man leading a camel, carved into the Siq’s sandstone.

The sandstone cliffs in Petra are also home to a number of geological features, including faults, joints, and bedding planes, which were formed by the movement of the Earth’s crust over time.

The Al-Khazneh at Petra is the most iconic archaeological site. The structure is believed to have been the mausoleum of the Nabatean King Aretas IV in the 1st century CE. It acquired the name “Al-Khazneh,” meaning The Treasury, in the early 19th century due to local Bedouin beliefs that it contained treasures. While its exact purpose remains uncertain, archaeological evidence suggests a burial crypt beneath it. Some legends propose it as a treasury of the Egyptian Pharaoh during Moses’ time (Khaznet Far’oun).

The façade of the Treasury, which measures 24.9 meters wide by 38.77 meters high, is the most eloquent example of Hellenistic architecture and demonstrates Alexandria’s importance as the largest city in the Eastern Mediterranean at that time period. There are no inscriptions or ceramic evidence associated with the tomb that allows us to directly date it. Another Hellenistic connection are the relief sculptures and fine detailing. For instance, on the upper level, there are bare-breasted Amazons and Victories standing on either side of a center female figure said to be Isis-Tyche, a fusion of the Egyptian Goddess Isis and the Greek Goddess of luck, Tyche. Since the edifice was carved and sculpted from the rock two thousand years ago, much of its architectural intricacies have been lost to time and erosion.

Castor and Pollux, twin figures from Greek mythology, stand on either side of the porch leading to the entrance. The massive stone lintel spans the width of the structure and is supported by six columns, all carved from the same rock. While the middle two columns are freestanding, the outer four are embedded in the rock face, which provides complete support for the lintel and facade.

To reach the heart of Petra from Al-Khazneh (The Treasury), visitors pass through the Outer Siq, a short passage where tall tomb facades carved from rock line the route. This area, known as the Street of Facades or Theater Necropolis, is considered one of the oldest burial grounds in Petra, possibly housing senior officials or princes of the city.

The Uneishu Tomb, located nearby, is thought to have been built in 76 AD for the brother of Shaqilath II, a Nabataean queen, as indicated by an inscription found nearby. The tomb follows the Hegr design, characterized by its imposing façade framed by two columns and a double cornice.

While Petra is often revered as the Lost City among tourists, the grand amphitheater at the end of the Street of Facades’ necropolis serves as a tangible reminder that Petra was a vibrant “city of the living.” Carved directly into the rock of Jabal al-Madhbah, the semicircular auditorium (cavea) of the theater could host up to 8,000 spectators.

Philip C. Hammond dated its construction to the early first century AD, during the reign of Nabataean King Aretas IV, based on stonemason marks found on column drums during excavation. Following Roman occupation in 106 AD, the theater was expanded by cutting through ancient tombs, remnants of which are visible on the smoothed rock face.

Across from the Roman theater stand the Royal Tombs of Petra, comprising the Urn Tomb, Silk Tomb, Corinthian Tomb, and Palace Tomb. The Urn tomb, got its name from the jar that was set on the pediment. It was most likely built sometime after the passing of the Nabataean King Malchus II and was once known as al-Mahkamah (court of justice) by the Bedouin. Three niches can be found high up on the front; the fragments of a slab depicting a man in a toga are covering the center niche. Ascending several flights of stairs leads to the main tomb courtyard, located high on the mountainside. The purpose of the arched chambers in front of the urn tomb remains uncertain, though they may have served as burial rooms.

In the early 4th century CE, Christians in Petra faced persecution under Emperor Diocletian for refusing to sacrifice animals to Roman gods. From 343 CE, Petra’s bishops participated in church councils and synods, indicating the city’s evolution into a significant Christian center. Bishop Jason converted the Urn Tomb into a church in 447 CE, as evidenced by a rare inscription to “Christ the Saviour” found within one of its rooms.

The Great Temple in Petra is a large rectangular complex situated prominently just south of the Roman street and southeast of the Temenos Gate. Completed during the reign of Nabataean King Aretas IV in the first century AD, its exact purpose remains uncertain—whether as a place of worship or an administrative building. The fact that it is thought to be the largest freestanding building to have been excavated in the city is one thing that becomes evident from this leg of my walking tour so far.

Northwest of the Great Temple lies Qasr al-Bint, also known as “The Castle of the Daughter of Pharaoh.” This religious temple, dedicated to the Nabataean deity Dushara, is steeped in local mythology. According to legend, it was built in connection to a myth about the Exodus pharaoh, who, according to the mythology, became weary of hunting down the Israelites and eventually made Petra his home. In a different local folktale, the virtuous daughter of a wicked pharaoh was given the responsibility of choosing between her suitors by having them fill her castle with water. The work was accomplished simultaneously by two suitors by sending water from various sources in the surrounding hills to the palace. The princess chose the less ostentatious of the two suitors, who credited God for his achievement. While not historically accurate, these stories add to the colorful lore of Petra.

Petra holds hidden treasures often overlooked in the rush to explore its wonders. It is literally a dream land for anyone aspiring to be an archaeologist or maybe fantasize about Indiana Jones, or maybe think about West Jr and his adventures in Matthew Reilly books. The Byzantine Church, also known as The Petra Church, sits atop elevated ground in the city center, a gem awaiting discovery.

Excavated by the American Center of Oriental Research between 1992 and 2002, this church dates back to the fifth century CE and was in use until the early seventh century when fire destroyed it. The church’s lavish mosaic decoration is remarkable, and it houses 140 Petra papyri providing valuable insights into Byzantine Petra’s social and economic life – from real estate transactions to marriages, and confirming Petra’s significance as a regional center.

The mosaics, displaying scenes of seasons, animals, humans, pottery, and plants, reflect elements of Hellenistic, Roman, and Gaza School iconography, offering a broader historical and cultural perspective on Petra.

The Palace Tomb is one of Petra’s largest rock-hewn façades, measuring 49 meters wide and 46 meters tall, featuring 12 decorated columns and four gates. This Royal tomb uniquely combines carved and built structures. Named for its elaborate design resembling a Roman palace front like Nero’s Golden House, its name reflects appearance rather than historical function.

Al-Deir Monastery, one of Petra’s largest monuments, was carved in the Nabatean Classical style, blending Hellenistic and Mesopotamian influences. Likely built as a temple in the early second century CE during the reign of King Rabel II (76-106 CE), it measures 50 meters wide and 45 meters high, making it the second most visited site in Petra after Al-Khazneh.

The Monastery’s rock-cut façade, measuring 47 meters high and 48 meters wide, features a broken pediment with a central tholos topped by an urn. The abstracted Corinthian columns reflect Hellenistic influence, while the structure’s design, cut directly into sandstone, suggests they are decorative rather than functional. The façade also includes a Doric superstructure without figures and a single large entryway with window-like depressions, indicative of Mesopotamian architecture. The 8-meter high main door is the only light source for the interior.

To reach the Monastery, visitors climb 800 zigzagging steps surrounded by red granite cliffs and pink oleander blooms. An inscription found nearby in 1990-91 referred to the structure as “the symposium of Obodas the God,” suggesting it may have been a gathering place for followers of Obodas or a monument and burial site for his family.

Little Petra

Until the late 1950s, Little Petra was known only to Bedouin nomads who occasionally camped there. British archaeologist Diana Kirkbride expanded her Petra excavations to include Beidha area, asignificant archaeological site. Archaeologists propose that Little Petra, known in Arabic as Siq al-Barid, or Cold Canyon, was carved between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD.

Archaeologists believe Little Petra was a suburb of Petra, the Nabataean capital, intended to house visiting Silk Road traders. The canyon’s cool environment made it an ideal stop for long-distance travelers. To the east lies the Arabian Desert, and to the west, the terrain drops into the Jordan Rift Valley, reaching depths of 400 meters below sea level.

Siq al-Barid is located in a 450-meter wadi and accessed via a narrow rock-cut passageway on the eastern entrance. The canyon walls, textured and pock-marked, blend man-made features with natural formations. Inside the wadi are tombs, temples, cisterns, and banqueting halls (tricliniums) carved into the sandstone. Notably, Siq al-Barid contains some of the only surviving Nabataean paintings, such as the Painted Biclinium, which features faux architectural elements, intertwining vines, flowers, birds, and cherubic figures.

While often recommended as a more relaxed alternative to Petra, Little Petra offers unique ancient paintings not found in its larger neighbor, making it a worthwhile visit for art and archaeology enthusiasts.

Petra by night

“Petra by Night” isn’t included in the regular entry ticket and must be purchased separately. This light show features the path to the Treasury illuminated by lamps, with a traditional music performance in front of the iconic façade. For me, seeing the Treasury at night was truly beautiful. However, walking the entire length of the Siq in the deepened shadows with minimal lighting was unsettling. Despite the blissful silence of walking to Petra alone, the lamps provided insufficient light, making the uneven terrain challenging to navigate, especially for those with severe knee problems like my parents.

The Petra Museum

The Petra Museum, inaugurated by Crown Prince Hussein on April 18, 2019, is situated near the entrance to the archaeological park. It offers unique exhibits and extensive information to deepen understanding of the ancient Nabataean capital and its surroundings. The museum features over 300 archaeological finds displayed in eight thematic and chronological galleries, covering periods from the Stone Age to the Nabataeans’ peak in the 1st century AD and the Roman era from 106 AD.

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Further readings:

• Bikai, P.M., Saunders, S.L. and Kanellopoulos , Chrysanthos (2008) Beidha in Jordan: A dionysian hall in a Nabataean landscape. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627485?read-now=1 (Accessed: 01 October 2023).
• Charles R Ortloff. The Water Supply and Distribution System of the Nabataean City of Petra (Jordan), 300 BC–AD 300. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 15:1, 93–109. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774305000053
• Dumon, F. C., 2010. The Cambro-Ordovician Sequence in the Petra Area, Jordan – Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. MSc Thesis. TA Report number : AES/TG/10-38. Section for Applied Geology, Department of Applied Earth Sciences, Delft University of Technology.
• Makhlouf, I., & Abed, A. (1991). Depositional facies and environments in the Umm Ishrine Sandstone Formation, Dead Sea area, Jordan. Sedimentary Geology, Amsterdam, Vol.71, pp.177–187.
• Naylor, D., Al-Rawi, M., Clayton, M., Fitzpatrick, M.J., and Green, P.F., 2013. Hydrocarbon Potential of Jordan. J.P.G., Vol. 36 (3), July 2013, pp. 205–236.
• Selley, R. (1970). Ichnology of Paleozoic sandstones in the southern desert of Jordan: A study of trace fossils in their sedimentological context. In: Crimes, T.P. and Harpe, J.C. (eds), Trace Fossils.
• Selley, S. (1972). Diagnosis of marine and non-marine environments from the Cambro-Ordovician sandstones of Jordan. J. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. 128 , pp. 135–150.
• “Petra: Rock-cut Facades“. Kahn Academy. Retrieved May 13, 2019.

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Middle East | Jordan